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Teachers Migration to Australia before 1939 In the period between the two World Wars economic and social conditions deteriorated in the Balkans and there was significant migration to Australia to escape high unemployment and political frustration. From the 1933 census it is estimated that there were 7,000 Yugoslav-born people in Australia. Migration to Australia after 1945 It is difficult to establish the numbers of Bosnians who migrated to Australia as it was only in the 1961 census that Yugoslavia included the new classification of Bosnian Muslims. This defined Muslims in the ‘sense of nationality’ and included those not actively religious. Before the 1960’s Bosnian Muslims tended to emigrate to Turkey for religious and traditional reasons. In 1970 an official migration document was signed between Australia and Yugoslavia. There were over 150,000 Yugoslav-born Australians recorded in the 1986 census. However, many people of the former Yugoslavia have various ethnic backgrounds and many of those in Australia identified with those backgrounds rather than with Yugoslavia. Yugoslavians were found to be employed largely in the industrial working class. The majority of social and religious bodies in Australia have developed almost exclusively around specific ethnic groups for Yugoslav-born Australians. Signs of Bosnian Muslim community life have been evident since the early 1970’s with the establishment of two mosques in Melbourne and one in Sydney*1. How many Bosnians are there in Australia? In the period August 1991 - February 1996 there were 20,502 immigrants from the the former Yugoslavia. The Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs did not record the ethnic identity of immigrants until only recently. Their official figures indicate that there were 456 Bosnian arrivals into NSW, of whom 440 were accepted on humanitarian grounds in the above period. Specialist organisations estimate that the following numbers arrived in Australia as follows:
A very brief History of the Crisis
in the former Yugoslavia Following the end of World War II, Tito formed the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia. Tito’s post-war government was highly sensitive to the ‘nationality problem’ and used the slogan ‘Brotherhood and Unity’ to achieve a semblance of unity among mutually antagonistic Yugoslav peoples. In hindsight he may have been more effective in achieving this transformation by promoting a civic culture based on citizens rights rather than suppressing nationalist thinking by making it illegal. By the 1960s Tito realised that socialism was not eradicating the old nationalisms and tried to balance them against each other. After his death in 1980 the Yugoslav federation soon began to weaken. Politicians like Franjo Tudjman and Slobodan Milosevic used the dogma of nationalism to replace the vacuum created by the fall of communism. It was also a period of increasing economic hardship and people eager to seek scapegoats looked no further than the minorities in their communities. In June 1991 Slovenia and Croatia declared independence. Following the ‘Ten Day War’ Slovenia became an independent republic. As a result of war in Croatia form July to December 1991 the Serbs won control of one third of the Croatian Republic. During this period were the first reports of ‘ethnic cleansing’ by the Serbs. The United Nations deployed the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) to broker and monitor a ceasefire in Croatia. On March 1, 1992 Bosnia held a referendum on independence. Muslims and Croats voted overwhelmingly in favour but the Serbs boycotted the referendum. Violence then broke out between Serb extremists and Bosnian Government troops and police. Serb extremists (under sponsorship of the Serb government in Belgrade) engaged in terror and ethnic cleansing of eastern Bosnian towns. The ‘ethnic cleansers of Bosnia used killings and other atrocities to sow fear and panic and induce flight*22 ‘. On April 6, 1992 a crowd of 50,000 gathered in Sarajevo to demonstrate for peace. The crowd was made up of all three of Bosnia’s largest nationalities - Serbs, Croats and Bosnian Muslims. Serb militiamen fired into the crowd killing and wounding dozens of peace demonstrators. This was a prelude to a siege of the city that would last until February 1994. The unique circumstances in Sarajevo meant that the Bosnian war had a more ideological character*3 . Government figures reveal that 18.6% of all marriages 1981 - 1991 in Bosnia were between partners of different nationalities. This figure was as high as 34.1% in Sarajevo. Mindful of ethnic sensitivities, city authorities mandated that steeples on Orthodox and Catholic cathedrals could be built no higher that the minaret on the main mosque. The war in Bosnia encompassed death, atrocities and terror on a scale unknown in Europe since the end of World War II. Television cameras recorded images of the killings and brutality. Viewers around the world saw emaciated prisoners, destruction of homes and cultural monuments and refugees fleeing the terror carrying little more than the clothes on their backs. The international community attempted to resolve the issues by treating both the aggressor and the victim as equal contributors to the conflict. The end result of the ‘peace process’ was the very thing Bosnia had been trying to fight and and the extremist Serbs and Croats had hoped to achieve - the carve up of the territory and the division of the population along ethnic lines. By failing to distinguish between the victims and the aggressors, the victims were themselves forced to become aggressors. This also created a great deal of bitterness among the survivors. Education in Bosnia before the War Education was free and secular - no religion instruction was provided at any school. However subjects such as Marxism and People’s Self Defence was compulsory in the final years of primary school. People’s Self Defence included instruction in shooting, bombs, poisons, chemical and biological warfare and, at many schools, first aid. The teaching style was didactic and authoritarian. Curriculum was based on the needs of industry and emphasis was given to subjects such as science, engineering and languages. The four years of war disrupted the education of students from primary school to university. Buildings, books, blackboards and computers were destroyed while classes were held sporadically, if at all, depending on factors such as the level of fighting and the availability of heat for the buildings. The Impact of War on the Health of Young People
The first is the trauma of war. The majority of war-related deaths and injuries have resulted from direct shellings, bombardment and sniper fire. Unexploded mines pose a major health hazard to children and continue to be of threat. The second is the appearance of previously controlled diseases. For children with chronic illness such as asthma, diabetes, epilepsy, malignancies, birth defects and chronic disabilities care has been difficult and inadequate. Children have been poorly nourished which increases their susceptibility to common infectious diseases and deficiency conditions. Given the history of rape and the growing problem of prostitution in adolescents, HIV, hepatitis and other sexually transmitted diseases are of great concern. The third is the psychological trauma suffered. Among a random sample of children in Sarajevo it was shown that more than 60% of children have suffered psychological trauma. People who have been exposed to violent events such as rape, war, accidents and torture may suffer from Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In addition to PTSD symptoms, children may develop learning disabilities and problems with attention and memory. They may become anxious or clinging, and may also abuse themselves or others*66 . Some of the symptoms of PTSD that may be of concern to teachers of students with possible histories of trauma and torture may be categorised as follows: ‘Intrusive’ where the sufferer experiences a flashback or recollection that is so strong that they may think they are suffering the trauma again. In children, this may occur in the form of repetitive play. ‘Avoidance’ where the sufferer avoids close personal ties or is unable to feel emotions. They may seem bored, cold or preoccupied. Lack of affection means family members may feel rebuffed. ‘Hyperarousal’ is where sufferers may have trouble concentrating or remembering current information. They may also exhibit physical symptoms such as headaches or stomach aches. In order to help blunt emotions and forget the trauma, sufferers may abuse alcohol or other drugs. They may also have poor control over impulses and be at risk of suicide. The treatment involves reestablishing a sense of safety and control in the sufferer’s life. Being able to talk about it and getting help with feelings of guilt, self-blame and rage about the trauma is usually very effective in helping people put the event behind them. Group therapy can be an important part of treatment for PTSD. Medication may also be required. What do I need to know about Bosnian students in my
classroom? On a practical level, the student (and their family) may need help, for example to become aware of government departments and community organisations that may assist them. These actions may also help establish trust. We will need to be careful observers of the students in our care. Students who have experienced or witnessed war trauma or torture may exhibit the signs of PTSD. PTSD is not limited to those with direct experience as we need to be aware of guilt of survivors and grief for those who didn’t make it or were left behind. Teachers need to be aware of culture shock. ‘Culture shock is the anxiety which arises when one no longer knows or can control the various aspects of the environment in order to gain feedback and reinforcement’*77 .Someone moving from one country to another loses, in effect, their whole way of life including their home, friends, relatives, job or school, possessions, climate, music, ways of behaving and music. what is happening and to develop strategies aimed at raising self-esteem. Teachers need to look at policy, curriculum, classroom organisation and teaching methods. Issues such as racism both stems from and leads to low self-esteem. There are departmental guidelines on recognising racism and grievance procedures for dealing with racism. Teachers also require self-awareness. We need to know our limits. Issues such as PTSD or medical conditions require professional or specialised intervention. Helping a student with a difficult history is also very distressing for the teacher so we may need support ourselves. Above all, as teachers we need to develop our active listening skills. Where can I go for more information? 2. If there is a problem, talk to the school counsellor. Counsellors in mainstream schools may not have had much experience dealing with many of the specific issues faced by refugees and may seek assistance or referral to a counsellor in an Intensive English Centre. Counsellors in IEC’s receive specialised inservicing on issues facing different community groups and can also provide a list of further contacts. 3. Familiarise yourself with the relevant Department of School Education policy documents including Multicultural Policy, Anti-Racism Policy, Anti- Racism Grievance Procedures and policies that deal with student welfare. 4. Organisations that may be able to provide assistance include:
5. Websites that may be of interest: RADIO FREE EUROPE VICTORIAN FOUNDATION FOR SURVIVORS OF TORTURE INC. http://ariel.ucs.unimelb.edu.au AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL http://www.ecdpm.org/amnesty/index.html UNITED NATIONS Sylvia Stock |